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A fingerprint is an impression of the friction ridges of all or any part of the finger. A friction ridge is a raised portion of the epidermis on the palmar or plantar skin, consisting of one or more connected ridge units of friction ridge skin. These ridges are sometimes known as "dermal ridges" or "dermal papillae".
Fingerprints may be deposited in natural secretions from the eccrine glands present in friction ridge skin (secretions consisting primarily of water) or they may be made by ink or other contaminants transferred from the peaks of friction skin ridges to a relatively smooth surface such as a fingerprint card. The term fingerprint normally refers to impressions transferred from the pad on the last joint of fingers and thumbs, though fingerprint cards also typically record portions of lower joint areas of the fingers (which are also used to effect identifications).
Fingerprint identification
Fingerprint identification (sometimes referred to as dactyloscopy is the process of comparing questioned and known friction skin ridge impressions (see Minutiae) from fingers, palms, and toes to determine if the impressions are from the same finger (or palm, toe, etc.). The flexibility of friction ridge skin means that no two finger or palm prints are ever exactly alike (never identical in every detail), even two impressions recorded immediately after each other. Fingerprint identification (also referred to as individualization) occurs when an expert (or an expert computer system operating under threshold scoring rules) determines that two friction ridge impressions originated from the same finger or palm (or toe, sole) to the exclusion of all others.
Fingerprint identification (sometimes referred to as dactyloscopy is the process of comparing questioned and known friction skin ridge impressions (see Minutiae) from fingers, palms, and toes to determine if the impressions are from the same finger (or palm, toe, etc.). The flexibility of friction ridge skin means that no two finger or palm prints are ever exactly alike (never identical in every detail), even two impressions recorded immediately after each other. Fingerprint identification (also referred to as individualization) occurs when an expert (or an expert computer system operating under threshold scoring rules) determines that two friction ridge impressions originated from the same finger or palm (or toe, sole) to the exclusion of all others.
Latent prints
Although the word latent means hidden or invisible, in modern usage for forensic science the term latent prints means any chance or accidental impression left by friction ridge skin on a surface, regardless of whether it is visible or invisible[1] at the time of deposition. Electronic, chemical and physical processing techniques permit visualization of invisible latent print residue whether it is from natural secretions of the eccrine glands present on friction ridge skin (which produce palmar sweat, but no oils), or whether the impression is in a contaminate such as oil, blood, paint, ink, etc.
Although the word latent means hidden or invisible, in modern usage for forensic science the term latent prints means any chance or accidental impression left by friction ridge skin on a surface, regardless of whether it is visible or invisible[1] at the time of deposition. Electronic, chemical and physical processing techniques permit visualization of invisible latent print residue whether it is from natural secretions of the eccrine glands present on friction ridge skin (which produce palmar sweat, but no oils), or whether the impression is in a contaminate such as oil, blood, paint, ink, etc.
Patent prints
These are friction ridge impressions of unknown origin which are obvious to the human eye and are caused by a transfer of foreign material on the finger, onto a surface. Because they are already visible they need no enhancement, and are photographed instead of being lifted.
Plastic prints
A plastic print is a friction ridge impression from a finger or palm (or toe/foot) deposited in a material that retains the shape of the ridge detail. Commonly encountered examples are melted candle wax, putty removed from the perimeter of window panes and thick grease deposits on car parts. Such prints are already visible and need no enhancement, but investigators must not overlook the potential that invisible latent prints deposited by accomplices may also be on such surfaces. After photographically recording such prints, attempts should be made to visualize other non-plastic impressions deposited in natural finger/palm secretions (eccrine gland secretions) or contaminates.
These are friction ridge impressions of unknown origin which are obvious to the human eye and are caused by a transfer of foreign material on the finger, onto a surface. Because they are already visible they need no enhancement, and are photographed instead of being lifted.
Plastic prints
A plastic print is a friction ridge impression from a finger or palm (or toe/foot) deposited in a material that retains the shape of the ridge detail. Commonly encountered examples are melted candle wax, putty removed from the perimeter of window panes and thick grease deposits on car parts. Such prints are already visible and need no enhancement, but investigators must not overlook the potential that invisible latent prints deposited by accomplices may also be on such surfaces. After photographically recording such prints, attempts should be made to visualize other non-plastic impressions deposited in natural finger/palm secretions (eccrine gland secretions) or contaminates.
Fingerprints collected at a crime scene, or on items of evidence fr
om a crime, can be used in forensic science to identify suspects, victims and other persons who touched a surface. Fingerprint identification emerged as an important system within police agencies in the late 19th century, when it replaced anthropometric measurements as a more reliable method for identifying persons having a prior record, often under an alias name, in a criminal record repository.
Classifying fingerprints om a crime, can be used in forensic science to identify suspects, victims and other persons who touched a surface. Fingerprint identification emerged as an important system within police agencies in the late 19th century, when it replaced anthropometric measurements as a more reliable method for identifying persons having a prior record, often under an alias name, in a criminal record repository.Before computerization, manual fingerprint classification systems were developed to categorize fingerprints based on general ridge formations (such as the presence or absence of circular patterns in various fingers), thus permitting filing and retrieval of paper records in large collections based on friction ridge patterns independent of name, birth date and other biographic data that persons may misrepresent. The most popular ten print classification systems include the Roscher system, the Vucetich system, and the Henry system. Of these systems, the Roscher system was developed in Germany and implemented in both Germany and Japan, the Vucetich system was developed in Argentina and implemented throughout South America, and the Henry system was developed in India and implemented in most English-speaking countries.
In the Henry system of classification, there are three basic fingerprint patterns: Arch, Loop and Whorl. There are also more complex classification systems that further break down patterns to plain arches or tented arches.[5] Loops may be radial or ulnar, depending on the side of the hand the tail points towards. Whorls also have sub-group classifications including plain whorls, accidental whorls, double loop whorls, and central pocket loop whorls.
The science of fingerprint identification stands out among all other forensic sciences for many reasons, including the following: 1. Has served all governments worldwide during the past 100 years to provide accurate identification of criminals.
2. No two fingerprints have ever been found alike in many billions of human and automated computer comparisons.
3. Fingerprints are the very basis for criminal history foundation at every police agency.
Established the first forensic professional organization, the International Association for Identification (IAI), in 1915.
Established the first professional certification program for forensic scientists, the IAI's Certified Latent Print Examiner program (in 1977), issuing certification to those meeting stringent criteria and revoking certification for serious errors such as erroneous identifications.
Remains the most commonly used forensic evidence worldwide - in most jurisdictions fingerprint examination cases match or outnumber all other forensic examination casework combined.
Continues to expand as the premier method for identifying persons, with tens of thousands of persons added to fingerprint repositories daily in America alone - far outdistancing similar databases in growth.
Outperforms DNA and all other human identification systems to identify more murderers, rapists and other serious offenders (fingerprints solve ten times more unknown suspect cases than DNA in most jurisdictions).
Fingerprint identification was the first forensic discipline (in 1977) to formally institute a professional certification program for individual experts, including a procedure for decertifying those making errors. Other forensic disciplines later followed suit in establishing certification programs whereby certification could be revoked for error.
Fingerprint identification effects far more positive identifications of persons worldwide daily than any other human identification procedure. The American federal government alone effects positive identification of over 70,000 persons most days, including US-Visit (Department of Homeland Security) and Federal Bureau of Investigation fingerprint activities. A large percentage of the identifications (approximately 92% of US-Visit identifications) are effected in a lights-out (no human involved) computer identification process with 100% accuracy based on only two fingerprints.
As in any field of human endeavor, errors in fingerprint identifications can and do occur. Such errors in fingerprint identification are so rare that when they occur, they normally make headlines worldwide. One of the most famous fingerprint identification mistakes was made by the FBI Laboratory in 2004. Although the FBI Laboratory had previously made about one latent fingerprint identification error each eleven years, the 2004 error was the first instance in the 84 years of the FBI Laboratory's operation when an error was not discovered and corrected before it caused an innocent person to be jailed.
Established the first forensic professional organization, the International Association for Identification (IAI), in 1915.
Established the first professional certification program for forensic scientists, the IAI's Certified Latent Print Examiner program (in 1977), issuing certification to those meeting stringent criteria and revoking certification for serious errors such as erroneous identifications.
Remains the most commonly used forensic evidence worldwide - in most jurisdictions fingerprint examination cases match or outnumber all other forensic examination casework combined.
Continues to expand as the premier method for identifying persons, with tens of thousands of persons added to fingerprint repositories daily in America alone - far outdistancing similar databases in growth.
Outperforms DNA and all other human identification systems to identify more murderers, rapists and other serious offenders (fingerprints solve ten times more unknown suspect cases than DNA in most jurisdictions).
Fingerprint identification was the first forensic discipline (in 1977) to formally institute a professional certification program for individual experts, including a procedure for decertifying those making errors. Other forensic disciplines later followed suit in establishing certification programs whereby certification could be revoked for error.
Fingerprint identification effects far more positive identifications of persons worldwide daily than any other human identification procedure. The American federal government alone effects positive identification of over 70,000 persons most days, including US-Visit (Department of Homeland Security) and Federal Bureau of Investigation fingerprint activities. A large percentage of the identifications (approximately 92% of US-Visit identifications) are effected in a lights-out (no human involved) computer identification process with 100% accuracy based on only two fingerprints.
As in any field of human endeavor, errors in fingerprint identifications can and do occur. Such errors in fingerprint identification are so rare that when they occur, they normally make headlines worldwide. One of the most famous fingerprint identification mistakes was made by the FBI Laboratory in 2004. Although the FBI Laboratory had previously made about one latent fingerprint identification error each eleven years, the 2004 error was the first instance in the 84 years of the FBI Laboratory's operation when an error was not discovered and corrected before it caused an innocent person to be jailed.
US fingerprint databases
The FBI manages a fingerprint identification system and database called IAFIS, which currently holds the fingerprints and criminal records of over fifty-one million criminal record subjects, and over 1.5 million civilian (non-criminal) fingerprint records. US-Visit currently holds a repository of over 50 million persons, primarily in the form of two-finger records by 2008, US-Visit is transforming to a system recording FBI-standard tenprint records).
The FBI manages a fingerprint identification system and database called IAFIS, which currently holds the fingerprints and criminal records of over fifty-one million criminal record subjects, and over 1.5 million civilian (non-criminal) fingerprint records. US-Visit currently holds a repository of over 50 million persons, primarily in the form of two-finger records by 2008, US-Visit is transforming to a system recording FBI-standard tenprint records).
Fingerprint compression
Most American law enforcement agencies use Wavelet Scalar Quantization (WSQ), a wavelet-based system for efficient storage of compressed fingerprint images at 500 pixels per inch (ppi). WSQ was developed by the FBI, the Los Alamos National Lab, and the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST). For fingerprints recorded at 1000 ppi spatial resolution, law enforcement (including the FBI) uses JPEG 2000 instead of WSQ.
Most American law enforcement agencies use Wavelet Scalar Quantization (WSQ), a wavelet-based system for efficient storage of compressed fingerprint images at 500 pixels per inch (ppi). WSQ was developed by the FBI, the Los Alamos National Lab, and the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST). For fingerprints recorded at 1000 ppi spatial resolution, law enforcement (including the FBI) uses JPEG 2000 instead of WSQ.
Fingerprint locks
In the 2000s, electronic fingerprint readers have been introduced for security applications such as identification of computer users (log-in authentication). However, early devices have been discovered to be vulnerable to quite simple methods of deception, such as fake fingerprints cast in gels. Recently on episode on episode 59 of Discovery Channel show Mythbusters, the hosts were able to outsmart a fingerprint lock by imprinting molds on to ballistic gel and making copies of the fingerprints. To gain the fine clarity, they enlarged the finger print and then drew in the finger print lines with a permanent marker. Then they rescanned the fingerprint and shrunk it back to normal size. In 2006, fingerprint sensors gained popularity in the notebook PC market. Built-in sensors in ThinkPads, VAIO laptops, and others also double as motion detectors for document scrolling, like the scroll wheel.
In the 2000s, electronic fingerprint readers have been introduced for security applications such as identification of computer users (log-in authentication). However, early devices have been discovered to be vulnerable to quite simple methods of deception, such as fake fingerprints cast in gels. Recently on episode on episode 59 of Discovery Channel show Mythbusters, the hosts were able to outsmart a fingerprint lock by imprinting molds on to ballistic gel and making copies of the fingerprints. To gain the fine clarity, they enlarged the finger print and then drew in the finger print lines with a permanent marker. Then they rescanned the fingerprint and shrunk it back to normal size. In 2006, fingerprint sensors gained popularity in the notebook PC market. Built-in sensors in ThinkPads, VAIO laptops, and others also double as motion detectors for document scrolling, like the scroll wheel.
References
Peer Reviewed Glossary of the Scientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology (SWGFAST)
Olsen, Robert D., Sr. (1972) “The Chemical Composition of Palmar Sweat” Fingerprint and Identification Magazine Vol 53(10)
Ashbaugh, David R. (1991) "Ridgeology". Journal of Forensic Identification Vol 41 (1) ISSN: 0895-l 73X
Johnson, P. Lee (1973) "Life of Latents" Identification News Vol 23(1)
Engert, Gerald J. (1964) "International Corner" Identification News Vol 14(1)
Henry, Edward R., Sir (1900) Classification and Uses of Finger Prints London: George Rutledge & Sons, Ltd.
Faulds, Henry, MD (1880) Nature
Reid, Donald L. (2003) "Dr. Henry Faulds - Beith Commemorative Society" Journal of Forensic Identification Vol53(2)
Galton, Francis, MD, Sir (1892) Finger Prints London: MacMillan and Co.
Chapman, Carey L. (1992) "Dr. Juan Vucetich - His Contribution to the Science of Fingerprints" Journal of Forensic Identification Vol42(4)
History of Fingerprints Scottich Criminal Records Office, retrieved Aug 2006
Myers, Harry J., II (1948) Fingerprint and Identification Magazine Vol30(2):
International Association for Identification History, retrieved Aug 2006
Bonebrake, George J. (1978) "Report on the Latent Print Certification Program" Identification News Vol28(3)
Peer Reviewed Glossary of the Scientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology (SWGFAST)
Olsen, Robert D., Sr. (1972) “The Chemical Composition of Palmar Sweat” Fingerprint and Identification Magazine Vol 53(10)
Ashbaugh, David R. (1991) "Ridgeology". Journal of Forensic Identification Vol 41 (1) ISSN: 0895-l 73X
Johnson, P. Lee (1973) "Life of Latents" Identification News Vol 23(1)
Engert, Gerald J. (1964) "International Corner" Identification News Vol 14(1)
Henry, Edward R., Sir (1900) Classification and Uses of Finger Prints London: George Rutledge & Sons, Ltd.
Faulds, Henry, MD (1880) Nature
Reid, Donald L. (2003) "Dr. Henry Faulds - Beith Commemorative Society" Journal of Forensic Identification Vol53(2)
Galton, Francis, MD, Sir (1892) Finger Prints London: MacMillan and Co.
Chapman, Carey L. (1992) "Dr. Juan Vucetich - His Contribution to the Science of Fingerprints" Journal of Forensic Identification Vol42(4)
History of Fingerprints Scottich Criminal Records Office, retrieved Aug 2006
Myers, Harry J., II (1948) Fingerprint and Identification Magazine Vol30(2):
International Association for Identification History, retrieved Aug 2006
Bonebrake, George J. (1978) "Report on the Latent Print Certification Program" Identification News Vol28(3)
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